Many readers have heard me harp on this issue during professional development events: grades that reflect anything other than the actual achievement of the student are a lie. Dishonesty should play no role in teaching. If meeting the objective is an A, then a school must declare a B to be a failing grade. Failing to meet the objective is failing (not a B!), and merely meeting the objective earns a C. A grade higher than that should represent achievement surpassing the objective. This issue of grading dishonesty extends beyond the elementary and secondary levels. Read this article, and then commit to full integrity in assessment and grading.
Okay, off the soapbox! The series on writing instruction will continue in the next posting.
Monday, October 27, 2008
Thursday, October 23, 2008
Transforming Substance into Significance, Part 6: Authenticity—Writing to Learn
Consider the following findings from research:
Author and teacher Gloria Houston found that students who wrote at the conclusion of every class regardless of the discipline (i.e., they wrote at the end of math class, science class, social studies class…) made greater achievement than their non-writing peers. Houston (2004) reports: “At the end of the project,…every teacher indicated that journals were one of the most useful tools they had in helping their students learn…students who had been in the project for three years made remarkable gains on standardized tests. Aside from the test score gains, teachers believed that their students had not only learned how to be good test takers, they had learned how to be good learners” (p. 214-217).
Similar research reaches a similar conclusion: writing increases student achievement. Students who were engaged in writing in all classes during a school year gained three benefits over their peers who were not so engaged. First, they had final exam scores averaging seven points higher than their peers. Second, not a single one of these students earned grades of D or lower; there were no failing students in the writing group. Third, the writing students demonstrated more positive attitudes toward learning. Researcher John Franklin (2003) suggests writing as a “key to improving student learning” (p. 5).
Writing is a means of learning. “With every sentence you write, you have learned something,” claims Ueland (1987). “It has done you good. It has stretched your understanding” (p. 15-16). Writing experts refer to this aspect of writing as “knowledge transforming”—“constructing ideas and images through writing” (Fearn & Farnan, 2001, p. 183). In writing, “information promotes curiosity or speculation,” suggest Fearn and Farnan, “and the writer uses the information and the curiosity to construct knowledge not originally accumulated” (p. 183-184).
When students write, they deepen their learning and increase their achievement. An authentic instructional writing program recognizes the benefits or writing to learn and provides the training and resources necessary for every teacher in every discipline to engage students in writing.
Up next: successful instruction features several integrated elements.
References
Fearn, L. & Farnan, N. (2001). Interactions: Teaching writing and the language arts. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Franklin, J. (2003, Summer). Breaking the barriers: How writing across the curriculum programs help students and teachers. Curriculum Update, 4-5.
Houston, G. (2004). How writing works: Imposing organizational structure within the writing process. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Ueland, B. (1987). If you want to write: A book about art, independence and spirit. St. Paul, MN: Graywolf Press.
Author and teacher Gloria Houston found that students who wrote at the conclusion of every class regardless of the discipline (i.e., they wrote at the end of math class, science class, social studies class…) made greater achievement than their non-writing peers. Houston (2004) reports: “At the end of the project,…every teacher indicated that journals were one of the most useful tools they had in helping their students learn…students who had been in the project for three years made remarkable gains on standardized tests. Aside from the test score gains, teachers believed that their students had not only learned how to be good test takers, they had learned how to be good learners” (p. 214-217).
Similar research reaches a similar conclusion: writing increases student achievement. Students who were engaged in writing in all classes during a school year gained three benefits over their peers who were not so engaged. First, they had final exam scores averaging seven points higher than their peers. Second, not a single one of these students earned grades of D or lower; there were no failing students in the writing group. Third, the writing students demonstrated more positive attitudes toward learning. Researcher John Franklin (2003) suggests writing as a “key to improving student learning” (p. 5).Writing is a means of learning. “With every sentence you write, you have learned something,” claims Ueland (1987). “It has done you good. It has stretched your understanding” (p. 15-16). Writing experts refer to this aspect of writing as “knowledge transforming”—“constructing ideas and images through writing” (Fearn & Farnan, 2001, p. 183). In writing, “information promotes curiosity or speculation,” suggest Fearn and Farnan, “and the writer uses the information and the curiosity to construct knowledge not originally accumulated” (p. 183-184).
When students write, they deepen their learning and increase their achievement. An authentic instructional writing program recognizes the benefits or writing to learn and provides the training and resources necessary for every teacher in every discipline to engage students in writing.
Up next: successful instruction features several integrated elements.
References
Fearn, L. & Farnan, N. (2001). Interactions: Teaching writing and the language arts. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Franklin, J. (2003, Summer). Breaking the barriers: How writing across the curriculum programs help students and teachers. Curriculum Update, 4-5.
Houston, G. (2004). How writing works: Imposing organizational structure within the writing process. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Ueland, B. (1987). If you want to write: A book about art, independence and spirit. St. Paul, MN: Graywolf Press.
Tuesday, October 21, 2008
Transforming Substance into Significance, Part 5: Authenticity—Writing Process
Many educators answer "The Writing Process!" when asked about how to teach writing. For many years, educators believed that if they just pushed students through five (or six, or seven…) prescribed steps, writing abilities would naturally develop: If we could just get students to brainstorm, and then draft, and then…Unfortunately, the writing process, as it’s typically presented and explained, lacks the content and skill knowledge students need to write well.
Let’s explore two steps in the writing process, brainstorming and revising. Brainstorming typically involves students thinking about what they might write. Sometimes, if the student is preparing to write expository text, this first step may involve some research. Some teachers will even have students develop graphic organizers in this “prewriting” step. While each of these activities may play a role in writing’s earliest stage, they fail to provide the direction a young writer needs.
Why? One reason: thinking. If a writer’s thinking is disorganized, the writing will be disorganized. "Clear thinking makes for clear writing," claims editor and author Susan Bell (2007, p. 111), and editor Jack Hart (2006) concurs: "Writing is, in one sense, organized thinking" (p. 43). Thinking, organizing concepts into logical structures, is a precursor to good writing.
An authentic instructional program illustrates the relationship between thinking and writing, in part, by how it engages students in writing’s earliest phases. Some questions to consider when reviewing a program include:
Some educators like the term revising, some like editing, and some like proofreading (though each of these really represent different foci). By revising, I’m referring to the process of improving writing at both large (e.g., clarity) and small (e.g., using active verbs) scales. But what should students look for in reviewing a draft? Should they read it backwards to check for spelling and declare it finished if no errors are evident? Should students read the draft aloud to hear how their writing sounds?
Revising requires multiple reviews of a draft because improving writing requires attention to a plethora of elements. Are the verbs active wherever they can be? Are the antecedents clear? Do the sentences contain too many prepositional phrases? Are the modifiers necessary? Does each paragraph have a consistent focus? Does the writing “show” rather than “tell” wherever possible? Revising brings waves of improvement to writing, but to be successful, young writers need overt direction for revising their writing. Does the writing program emphasize revision? Does it teach students how to revise by having them practice on prepared writing samples? Does it provide tools for students to use in revising their writing?
The Writing Process, while seemingly
well-known in a general sense, contains steps featuring a myriad of supporting skills. Without mastering the supporting skills, students will not be able to use the writing process to produce quality writing. An authentic writing program provides detailed instruction and training in each phase of writing, from structuring thinking before drafting to generating waves of improvement before publishing.
References
Bell, S. (2007). The artful edit: On the practice of editing yourself. New York: W. W. Norton & Co.
Hart, J. (2006). A writer’s coach: An editor’s guide to words that work. New York: Pantheon Books.
Let’s explore two steps in the writing process, brainstorming and revising. Brainstorming typically involves students thinking about what they might write. Sometimes, if the student is preparing to write expository text, this first step may involve some research. Some teachers will even have students develop graphic organizers in this “prewriting” step. While each of these activities may play a role in writing’s earliest stage, they fail to provide the direction a young writer needs.
Why? One reason: thinking. If a writer’s thinking is disorganized, the writing will be disorganized. "Clear thinking makes for clear writing," claims editor and author Susan Bell (2007, p. 111), and editor Jack Hart (2006) concurs: "Writing is, in one sense, organized thinking" (p. 43). Thinking, organizing concepts into logical structures, is a precursor to good writing.
An authentic instructional program illustrates the relationship between thinking and writing, in part, by how it engages students in writing’s earliest phases. Some questions to consider when reviewing a program include:
- Does the program emphasize research as a pre-drafting process—even for most works of fiction?
- Does the program engage students in exploring and discovering connections between concepts.
- Does the program aid students in the organization of those connections?
- Does the program encourage the writer to identify a slant for expository writing?
- Does the student propose central questions prior to drafting expository writing?
Some educators like the term revising, some like editing, and some like proofreading (though each of these really represent different foci). By revising, I’m referring to the process of improving writing at both large (e.g., clarity) and small (e.g., using active verbs) scales. But what should students look for in reviewing a draft? Should they read it backwards to check for spelling and declare it finished if no errors are evident? Should students read the draft aloud to hear how their writing sounds?
Revising requires multiple reviews of a draft because improving writing requires attention to a plethora of elements. Are the verbs active wherever they can be? Are the antecedents clear? Do the sentences contain too many prepositional phrases? Are the modifiers necessary? Does each paragraph have a consistent focus? Does the writing “show” rather than “tell” wherever possible? Revising brings waves of improvement to writing, but to be successful, young writers need overt direction for revising their writing. Does the writing program emphasize revision? Does it teach students how to revise by having them practice on prepared writing samples? Does it provide tools for students to use in revising their writing?
The Writing Process, while seemingly
well-known in a general sense, contains steps featuring a myriad of supporting skills. Without mastering the supporting skills, students will not be able to use the writing process to produce quality writing. An authentic writing program provides detailed instruction and training in each phase of writing, from structuring thinking before drafting to generating waves of improvement before publishing.References
Bell, S. (2007). The artful edit: On the practice of editing yourself. New York: W. W. Norton & Co.
Hart, J. (2006). A writer’s coach: An editor’s guide to words that work. New York: Pantheon Books.
Monday, October 6, 2008
Transforming Substance into Significance, Part 4: Authenticity—Genre Variety
Knowing how to write in a variety of genres is like having a fully-loaded toolbox. It provides effective means for addressing diverse circumstances. An authentic instructional writing program educates and engages students in writing from several genres and their related subgenres.
Genre variety exposes students to effective writing techniques. For example, analyzing an editorial may reveal an author’s use of facts, logic, and conclusions to argue an issue. In contrast, analyzing a narrative may reveal an author’s use of similes and allusions to connect to known concepts. Noting and practicing such techniques can improve writing.
Knowledge of genres influences reading abilities and improves learning. As students understand a genre’s characteristics and techniques, they improve their abilities to comprehend writing within that genre. Studying the writing reveals how the genre “works”; knowing how the genre “works” increases comprehension of writing within it. Increased comprehension aids learning in all academic areas.
Knowledge of genres also develops flexibility. Genre flexibility enables an individual to use writing effectively in diverse circumstances. For example, knowing how to write a formal letter that includes persuasive arguments can empower communication with local and national leaders. Relatedly, knowing how to write a short story can enable an individual to write fiction for entertaining others or to use illustrative anecdotes within expository text.
An authentic instructional writing program—one that actually teaches students to write well—equips students to write beyond the traditional fiction-nonfiction genre dichotomy. Major genres should correlate with reasons for writing. We write to communicate (genre: communicative). We write to inform and explain (genre: expository). We write to celebrate influences on our lives (genre: narrative). We write to entertain (genre: story). Each of these reasons comprises more focused reasons for writing. For example, expository writing informs and explains, but it does so through analysis, biography, comparison, or one of several other subgenres. Works of expository writing often combine such subgenres. Students need to master each subgenre and be able to combine them for effective communication.
Genre variety matters, and the genres composing that variety matter. Does the instructional program equip students to write in several different genres? Do those genres and their related subgenres represent reasons to write? Do the subgenres build in such a way that students can combine them for effective communication? An authentic instructional writing program equips students to address diverse demands by developing writing capacity in a wide variety of genres; an authentic instructional writing program fills a student’s writing toolbox.
Genre variety exposes students to effective writing techniques. For example, analyzing an editorial may reveal an author’s use of facts, logic, and conclusions to argue an issue. In contrast, analyzing a narrative may reveal an author’s use of similes and allusions to connect to known concepts. Noting and practicing such techniques can improve writing.
Knowledge of genres influences reading abilities and improves learning. As students understand a genre’s characteristics and techniques, they improve their abilities to comprehend writing within that genre. Studying the writing reveals how the genre “works”; knowing how the genre “works” increases comprehension of writing within it. Increased comprehension aids learning in all academic areas.
Knowledge of genres also develops flexibility. Genre flexibility enables an individual to use writing effectively in diverse circumstances. For example, knowing how to write a formal letter that includes persuasive arguments can empower communication with local and national leaders. Relatedly, knowing how to write a short story can enable an individual to write fiction for entertaining others or to use illustrative anecdotes within expository text.
An authentic instructional writing program—one that actually teaches students to write well—equips students to write beyond the traditional fiction-nonfiction genre dichotomy. Major genres should correlate with reasons for writing. We write to communicate (genre: communicative). We write to inform and explain (genre: expository). We write to celebrate influences on our lives (genre: narrative). We write to entertain (genre: story). Each of these reasons comprises more focused reasons for writing. For example, expository writing informs and explains, but it does so through analysis, biography, comparison, or one of several other subgenres. Works of expository writing often combine such subgenres. Students need to master each subgenre and be able to combine them for effective communication.
Genre variety matters, and the genres composing that variety matter. Does the instructional program equip students to write in several different genres? Do those genres and their related subgenres represent reasons to write? Do the subgenres build in such a way that students can combine them for effective communication? An authentic instructional writing program equips students to address diverse demands by developing writing capacity in a wide variety of genres; an authentic instructional writing program fills a student’s writing toolbox.
Saturday, October 4, 2008
Transforming Substance into Significance, Part 3: Authenticity—Reasons for Writing Instruction
Authentic writing programs recognize valid reasons for instruction. Obviously, students need to learn to write because life often requires written communication—a tendency expanding due to technology. But learning to write well influences a student’s academic abilities and quality of life.
First, by learning to write well, a student gains a means of expressing his perspectives. We teach individuals, each with a voice worthy of being heard. Writer Brenda Ueland (1987) challenges teachers, stating, “The only good teachers for you are those friends who love you, who think you are interesting, or very important, or wonderfully funny; whose attitude is: ‘Tell me more. Tell me all you can. I want to understand more about everything you feel and know and all the changes inside and out of you. Let more come out’” (p. 8). Students equipped with good writing capacity can express their created individuality—their interests, their passions, and their humor.
Writing also serves as a means of learning. Writing experts refer to this aspect of writing as “knowledge transforming,” a “constructing ideas and images through writing” (Fearn & Farnan, 2001, p. 183). In writing, “information promotes curiosity or speculation, and the writer uses the information and the curiosity to construct knowledge not originally accumulated” (p. 183-184). Writing promotes elaboration, the forging of conceptual connections that construct understanding. Writing creates an intersection of learner, learning, and expression. This merging transforms distinct data to integrated understanding.
Third, writing capacity influences how a student views himself. If a student believes his thoughts and opinions matter AND he possesses the means to communicate those thoughts and opinions, he is more likely to become a PARTICIPANT in democracy—someone with the means to change his standing rather than view himself as a victim of forces over which he has no control.
Writing develops important cognitive functions such as working memory. “Few activities are as cognitively demanding as writing” (Dingfelder, 2006). In fact, different writing phases engage different elements of working memory. While drafting obviously engages verbal working memory, planning a piece of writing actually engages spatial working memory. Writers “represent their ideas visually when trying to structure their essays,” notes neuropsychologist David Galbraith (Dingfelder, 2006). Spatial working memory empowers planning, verbal working memory empowers drafting, and both empower revision as writers evaluate and improve both idea-level structure and word-level details. Improving working memory abilities influences fluid intelligence, a group of abilities “considered one of the most important factors in learning” and “critical for wide variety of cognitive tasks” (Jaeggi, Buschkuehl, Jonides, & Perrig, 2008). Teaching students to write may actually equip them for better overall learning.
Writing develops thinking abilities and increases student achievement. In one study, students who were engaged in writing in all classes during a school year had final exam scores averaging seven points higher than their peers, did not earn any report card grades of D or lower (i.e., there were no failing students in the writing group), and demonstrated more positive attitudes toward learning. Researcher John Franklin (2003) suggests writing as a “key to improving student learning” (p. 5).
Finally, writing provides insight on student learning. As teachers, we gain insight into student understanding through a student’s writing and can make the instructional adjustments—either greater challenge or additional instruction—that optimize student learning.
A program’s philosophical statement addresses its instructional rationale, and an authentic instructional writing program recognizes valid reasons for teaching students to write well. These reasons extend beyond the obvious ability to use writing to respond to circumstances. They address a student’s quality of learning and life. Without such an understanding of writing instruction’s potential contribution to a student’s education, a writing program may lack the instructional emphasis that will optimize student achievement.
Up next: the importance of genre variety
References
Dingfelder, S. (2006). Writing exercises all aspects of working memory. Monitor on Psychology 37 (7). 19.
Franklin, J. (2003, Summer). Breaking the barriers: How writing across the curriculum programs help students and teachers. Curriculum Update, 4-5.
Fearn, L. & Farnan, N. (2001). Interactions: Teaching writing and the language arts. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Perrig, W. J. (2008). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 (39).
Ueland, B. (1987). If you want to write: A book about art, independence and spirit. St. Paul, MN: Graywolf Press.
First, by learning to write well, a student gains a means of expressing his perspectives. We teach individuals, each with a voice worthy of being heard. Writer Brenda Ueland (1987) challenges teachers, stating, “The only good teachers for you are those friends who love you, who think you are interesting, or very important, or wonderfully funny; whose attitude is: ‘Tell me more. Tell me all you can. I want to understand more about everything you feel and know and all the changes inside and out of you. Let more come out’” (p. 8). Students equipped with good writing capacity can express their created individuality—their interests, their passions, and their humor.
Writing also serves as a means of learning. Writing experts refer to this aspect of writing as “knowledge transforming,” a “constructing ideas and images through writing” (Fearn & Farnan, 2001, p. 183). In writing, “information promotes curiosity or speculation, and the writer uses the information and the curiosity to construct knowledge not originally accumulated” (p. 183-184). Writing promotes elaboration, the forging of conceptual connections that construct understanding. Writing creates an intersection of learner, learning, and expression. This merging transforms distinct data to integrated understanding.
Third, writing capacity influences how a student views himself. If a student believes his thoughts and opinions matter AND he possesses the means to communicate those thoughts and opinions, he is more likely to become a PARTICIPANT in democracy—someone with the means to change his standing rather than view himself as a victim of forces over which he has no control.
Writing develops important cognitive functions such as working memory. “Few activities are as cognitively demanding as writing” (Dingfelder, 2006). In fact, different writing phases engage different elements of working memory. While drafting obviously engages verbal working memory, planning a piece of writing actually engages spatial working memory. Writers “represent their ideas visually when trying to structure their essays,” notes neuropsychologist David Galbraith (Dingfelder, 2006). Spatial working memory empowers planning, verbal working memory empowers drafting, and both empower revision as writers evaluate and improve both idea-level structure and word-level details. Improving working memory abilities influences fluid intelligence, a group of abilities “considered one of the most important factors in learning” and “critical for wide variety of cognitive tasks” (Jaeggi, Buschkuehl, Jonides, & Perrig, 2008). Teaching students to write may actually equip them for better overall learning.
Writing develops thinking abilities and increases student achievement. In one study, students who were engaged in writing in all classes during a school year had final exam scores averaging seven points higher than their peers, did not earn any report card grades of D or lower (i.e., there were no failing students in the writing group), and demonstrated more positive attitudes toward learning. Researcher John Franklin (2003) suggests writing as a “key to improving student learning” (p. 5).Finally, writing provides insight on student learning. As teachers, we gain insight into student understanding through a student’s writing and can make the instructional adjustments—either greater challenge or additional instruction—that optimize student learning.
A program’s philosophical statement addresses its instructional rationale, and an authentic instructional writing program recognizes valid reasons for teaching students to write well. These reasons extend beyond the obvious ability to use writing to respond to circumstances. They address a student’s quality of learning and life. Without such an understanding of writing instruction’s potential contribution to a student’s education, a writing program may lack the instructional emphasis that will optimize student achievement.
Up next: the importance of genre variety
References
Dingfelder, S. (2006). Writing exercises all aspects of working memory. Monitor on Psychology 37 (7). 19.
Franklin, J. (2003, Summer). Breaking the barriers: How writing across the curriculum programs help students and teachers. Curriculum Update, 4-5.
Fearn, L. & Farnan, N. (2001). Interactions: Teaching writing and the language arts. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Perrig, W. J. (2008). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 (39).
Ueland, B. (1987). If you want to write: A book about art, independence and spirit. St. Paul, MN: Graywolf Press.
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